Information Technology in Nursing Homes

Although acute care settings such as hospitals employ sophisticated, technological system networks, information technology systems in long-term care settings, such as nursing homes, is often lacking. The need for information technology services is often overlooked in nursing homes.

Warning

• Medication errors and erroneously written medical charting are a danger that nursing homes face as a result of their lack of information technology. Hospitals employ bedside computers that allow doctors and nurses to enter the patient's clinical findings into the computer without leaving the bedside. This allows for fresher information and decreases the risks that the caregiver will forget crucial statistics such as vital signs and medications given, as they must typically go back to the nurse's station to retrieve the actual patient's medical record to begin their charting.

Benefits

• When information technology systems such as in-room computers are available, patient information is permanently saved on the computer, alleviating the risk of lost medical records. Sometimes, important paperwork from the patient's chart is lost or misplaced, causing a delay in treatment, which does not occur when the medical record is saved on the computer.

Prevention/Solution

• To prevent loss of the patient's medical records, nursing homes need to update their information technology systems so paperwork can be streamlined. Because of concerns regarding patient safety, nursing home policy makers and committees are recommending the development and construction of new technologies to promote and support medical data standards, says Science Daily, a scientific website devoted to the latest in research news.

Sources of Isoflavones

• Soybeans are an excellent source of isoflavones. Laszlo Selly/Polka Dot/Getty Images

  Isoflavones are naturally occurring compounds found in plants that have similar effects on the body as estrogen. Many people, particularly older women who do not wish to undergo traditional hormone replacement therapies, choose to consume isoflavones to gain their potential health benefits. For those who wish to add isoflavones to their diet, both natural and synthetic sources of the compounds are available.

Soy

• While grains, legumes and certain vegetables provide small amounts of isoflavones, but soybeans provide a more concentrated amount of isoflavones than any other food. Products made from soybeans include tempeh, natto, miso and tofu. Soybeans picked and eaten in their natural green state are called edamame. Other sources of soy include soy milk, soy yogurt, soy cheese and soy-based meat substitutes.

Red Clover

• Among the numerous natural sources of isoflavones, the red clover, a perennial plant with white to red flowers, is one of the most important sources. The red clover is a member of the legume family. It is used throughout the world as a source of hay for horses, cattle and sheep. For humans, the leaves and young sprouts of the plant are used as a source of protein. Isoflavones derived from the red clover reduce the symptoms of menopause as well as help maintain bone density in both peri-menopausal and menopausal women. Red clover isoflavones do not, however, have a cholesterol reducing effect like soy isoflavones.

Supplements

• You can purchase Isoflavone supplements and extracts in the United States without a prescription. These supplements are not standardized, so the amount of isoflavones contained in them varies considerably from product to product. Quality control of these products may also be an issue. An independent test of isoflavone supplements available in the United States showed that approximately 50 percent of the products tested contained isoflavone content that differed by greater than 10 percent than the amount shown on the label. Although most supplements contain isoflavones extracted from red clover or soy beans, some contain a synthetic form of isoflavones called ipriflavone. Ipriflavone is a chemical substance designed to have the bone-stimulating effect of naturally occurring isoflavones, but not their estrogen-like effects. Consequently, ipriflavone is not helpful in relieving the symptoms of menopause.

Infant Formulas

• Many infant formula manufacturers offer soy-based formulas that contain significant amounts of isoflavones. Although the benefits of soy-based formulas are unclear, these products offer a viable alternative for infants who are allergic to cow's milk.

How to Remove the Lenses From Glasses

People wear eyeglasses to improve vision and prevent damage to the eye from straining to correct flaws in vision. Generally, a person needs glasses because he is nearsighted (can't see well far away), farsighted (can't see well close up), has astigmatism (a flaw in the shape of the eye that distorts vision) or a combination of these conditions. Small screws in the frame of the eye glasses typically hold the frame together and prevent the lenses from falling out.

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  Locate the screws that hold the rim of the eyepiece together on the end pieces. End pieces are the extensions on the sides of the front piece. End pieces connect the temples to the front piece.

• 2

  Turn the screw to the left using the miniature screwdriver in the eyeglass repair kit. Use care not to strip or lose the screws, or you will not be able to reassemble the glasses without them.

• 3

  Gently slide the lens free of the front piece when the screw is loosened.

Production Information About Barley Grass

Barley grass is a grain eaten by people and animals. First domesticated in the Near East, barley grass easily adapts in a variety of climates and is grown worldwide.

Product Information

• Barley is sown in moderate climates during the summer. With a germination time of one to three days, barley grass is easy to grow and can adapt to multiple types of soil. It is an annual, harvested in the spring and summer months. In the United States, most barley is cultivated in the New England states.

Benefits

• The grain is said to be a remedy for many health issues. It lowers LDL cholesterol and regulates blood sugar. It contains more vitamin C than one orange. Barley grass also contains vitamin B1, calcium and iron, packing a lot of nutritional punch. It also contains antioxidants, thought to combat aging.

Sources

• Barley grass can be consumed in many forms. Many health food stores offer barley grass caplets, which are easy to swallow. It is said that liquid barley is the most potent for health benefits. This can be taken by mixing barley powder with juice or water, and the liquid used needs to be cold or at room temperature. Hot liquid mixes break down the valuable nutritional content of barley grass.

Uses

• Barley grass has multiple uses, including animal feed, alcohol and food. It is considered a desirable and healthy feed for livestock. In alcohol, barley is used for malt beverages, mostly in the production of beer and whiskey. Barley grass can also be used to make wine and is popular in health food sources, such as whole grain cereals and flour.

Stabilization Techniques for Contact Lenses

• Stabilization is a crucial part of contact lens wear. If contact lenses are not properly stabilized, they can slide or move around the eye, causing irritation, discomfort, and vision impairment. People who wear bifocals or have astigmatism can still wear contact lenses, but additional stabilization techniques may be required to ensure a proper fit.

Proper Lens Design and Fit

• Most contact lenses are designed to be heavier at the bottom, making them stable and less likely to move or shift during wear. Obtaining a professional fitting is essential to make sure that the lenses are the correct size. Eye care professionals will measure the curvature of the eye, using a keratometer and may have the patient try several different pairs of lenses until the correct fit is found.

Toric Lenses

• Patients who wear bifocals or have astigmatism may require toric lenses, as opposed to traditional soft contact lenses. Unlike soft contact lenses, which come in a wide variety of generic sizes and shapes, toric lenses are customized for the wearer. These lenses are stabilized in the eye by a combination of precise measurements of the curvature of the eye. It is usually necessary for a patient to try more than one pair before finding the right one.

Regular Checkups

• Over time, contact lens prescriptions can change, and for continued quality of vision and stabilization, regular visits to an eye care professional are essential. Proper maintenance and storage of lenses will prevent them from weakening and becoming prone to slippage and movement when worn.

How to Pay for In-Home Elderly Health Care

Home health care services allow elderly people to receive health care in their own homes instead of hospitals or nursing homes. Many people prefer to receive care in familiar surroundings and home health care often costs less than hospital care or nursing home care. It can still be expensive, though; for instance, the National Clearinghouse for Long-Term Care Information reports that in 2009 the average cost for home health aide services was $21 per hour. Skilled nursing and therapy services cost more, of course.

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  Contact your health insurance company and ask if your policy covers elderly home health care. Many insurance companies do, including Medicare and Medicaid, under specific circumstances. Unfortunately most people do not qualify for Medicaid. Insurance companies usually require a doctor's order before they will pay for home health care services. You may have to pay a deductible or co-pay, depending on your insurance policy.

• 2

  Call the Area Agency on Aging in your area and ask if you qualify for services. The Area Agency on Aging provides some home health care service for elderly people in need. Call the National Association of Area Agencies on Aging at 202-872-0888 to find the Area Agency on Aging nearest you or visit the association's website.

• 3

  Call local home health care agencies and ask about payment options. Home health agencies usually have social workers on staff that can help you figure out how to pay for the care you need.

How Are Lenses Made for Glasses?

Glasses are used to help focus images and reflect those images back on the retina. Once the image is reflected on the retina, the retina works with the brain to process the image correctly.

Strength of Prescription

• Before a pair of lenses is made, an optometrist will need to assess your vision during a routine exam. The doctor will test your eyes and then send the numerical value of your prescription to a laboratory.

Lens Blanks

• Once the lab technician has the prescription number they will select a lens blank that is close to matching the thickness of the prescription. The technician then places the lens blank into a machine and grinds the lens to the required curve according to the prescription.

Frame Fitting

• The lenses are put through a fitting process known as "edging." During the process the lenses are tailored to fit into the frames chosen by the patient.

Insertion

• The final step in the process is to fit the lenses into the frames and ensure they fit securely. The frames are usually heated up to make them more flexible and easier to insert the lenses into.

Can Bedbugs Be Spread Into the Workplace?

After the 1950s, bed bugs in the U.S. became a rare problem, the use of DDT pesticide having almost eradicated them. Recent years have seen bed bugs come back stronger than ever, with increased numbers of infestations.

The Bugs

• The bed bug is a very small, flat-bodied insect that can be found almost anywhere in a home and, as the name suggests, often in beds. They do not grow larger than 3/16 inch, so they can be very hard to see unless you are looking for them.

Diet

• Signs of an infestation are small red spots or rashes where the bugs have bitten. The sole diet of the bug is blood, and the species is suited to feeding on humans.

Spreading to the Workplace

• Because of the bed bugs' small size and ability to hang onto things, they can easily hitch a ride in clothing and suitcases. If someone has a home infestation of the bugs, that person can transport unwanted bugs on their clothes anywhere they go, including the workplace. The bed bugs can then move rapidly into the carpets at work and, potentially, onto the clothes of others.

How to Recertify for Medicaid in Louisiana

Renewing Medicaid coverage in Louisiana is a procedural process that is the responsibility of those being covered by the program. The Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals administers and oversees the Medicaid program. Those receiving Medicaid should be informed when the one-year anniversary of coverage approaches, reminding them that re-certifying for the continuation of benefits is required. However, those receiving such benefits should be aware of all upcoming renewal dates, and be responsible for ensuring that benefits and coverage do not expire or lapse.

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  Read through your Medicaid paperwork given to you by the state. Contact the Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals if you cannot locate your paperwork that lists the date of initial Medicaid coverage. Contact the department to ask for your original enrollment date. Ask for the date when your current benefits allowance is set to expire.

• 2

  Obtain a copy of the form required by the state for the continuation or renewal of Medicaid benefits. Print a form directly from the Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals website. Or call the agency directly and request a form be mailed to you if you do not have access to a computer and printer.

• 3

  Fill out the form, and answer all questions honestly and accurately. Do not skip any questions unless they do not pertain to you at all. Include all documentation requested by the form in order to re-certify your Medicaid claim. Call the Department of Health and Hospitals if you have any difficulties filling out the form or if you have specific questions not answered in the instructions included with the form.

• 4

  Include copies of all relevant financial information with your renewal form. Include tax returns, pay stubs, disability benefits payment information, lease or rent payment information, and banking account information. Verify the form is complete and attach copies of all supplemental information to the form. Mail the complete package to the address listed on the form or to your case worker if you have a contact at the office.

• 5

  Follow up with the Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals in five to 10 business days after you mail in the form and documents. Verify that the form was received and is being processed. Make sure to do this at least two full weeks before your current enrollment period is set to expire. Follow up all requests for additional information in a timely manner.

Biomechanics for Abnormal Pronation

Our bodies benefit from normal foot biomechanics, distribution of force, because the way we place our feet on the ground affects the limbs above them. Biomechanical foot abnormalities such as abnormal pronation can create muscle imbalances and foot problems.

Pronation

• Pronation, a normal movement pattern in your feet, happens when you walk and the insides of your feet -- your arches -- momentarily connect with the ground as you put your foot down. An important action for the athlete in particular, it helps absorb the impact of ground contact, providing it remains within acceptable range.

Abnormal Pronation

• Abnormal pronation happens when the joints in your ankles or feet have excessive motion, hypermobile, or have restricted motion, hypomobile. Because of the altered joint mobility, abnormal stress and breakdown of muscle and connective can occur, leading to conditions such as shin splints, knee pain, bunions, heel spurs and Achilles tendinitis.

Prevention/Solution

• Abnormal pronation can be congenital or happen over time because of tight Achilles tendons or pelvic or muscle imbalances. Individuals with the condition should consider using foot orthotics in shoes to correct it. Consult with your doctor to have them custom-designed to your foot and shoes.

How to Obtain a Medicare Number

Medicare is a benefits package that was created by the United States government and Social Security to help United States citizens who are 65 and older with medical bills. You can apply for Medicare once you are 64 years and eight months old. Obtaining a Medicare number allows you to receive benefits. Doctors' offices and hospitals require the number to file claims for your medical expenses covered by Medicare.

Obtain a Medicare Number Online

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  Go online to the Social Security website. Click the "Apply Online for Medicare Now" red button on the Medicare Application page. (See Resource 1)

• 2

  Click on the "I am applying for myself" button. Then click "I am not blind or visually impaired" and then click "Apply for Benefits."

• 3

  Type in your personal information. Fill out the Medicare application to the best of your ability and contact Social Security if you have any questions regarding the application. (See Resource 1)

• 4

  Save the Medicare application. Press the "Save" button and return to the application at a later date if you do not have the answer to a question.

• 5

  Receive the notification from Social Security and Medicare. A description of your benefits and your Medicare number will arrive in the mail.

Obtain a Medicare Number in Person

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  Schedule an appointment. Contact the nearest Social Security office and set up an appointment to apply for Medicare.

• 2

  Go to your appointment. Bring your picture identification, birth certificate and your Social Security card.

• 3

  Work with the Social Security representative to fill out the Medicare application. Complete your personal information and the representative will assist you with filling out the form.

• 4

  Receive the Medicare notification in the mail. The notification will contain your Medicare number and information about your benefits.

Medicare & Medicaid Requirements

• Those with low incomes can receive low-cost or free health care. Aaron Graubart/Digital Vision/Getty Images

  Medicare and Medicaid are government-run programs that provide health care coverage for low-income people and the elderly. Costs for routine health care, emergencies and medications can become prohibitive for those on low or fixed incomes. Both programs were set up by the federal government. Medicare has the same requirements throughout the country. Medicaid is run by each state government, with varying requirements.

Medicaid Overview

• Medicaid was set up in the Department of Health and Human Services within the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. The health insurance program helps pay for some or all of the medical bills for those with limited income. According to the website of Nolo Legal Solutions, Medicaid covers inpatient and outpatient services, prescription drugs, preventive care and eyeglasses. Health care is either free, or participants must pay a small co-pay for services.

Medicaid Requirements

• Those with low-incomes might qualify for Medicaid programs within their state. Each state's requirements vary, so check your state government website for more information and exact income requirements. Medicaid covers families, single people and the elderly over age 65. In California, Medicaid is called Medi-Cal and includes coverage for those in assistance programs such as Refugee Assistance and Foster Care. This program also covers those who are disabled, under age 21, pregnant or in an intermediate-care home. In Delaware, low-income pregnant women and children under age 19 can use Medicaid if they qualify, as well as low-income uninsured adults ages 19 to 65.

Medicare Overview

• Medicare is a federal program that assists the elderly with the cost of medical care and prescription drugs. According to the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, the program includes hospital insurance coverage, medical insurance that covers doctor, laboratory and outpatient services such as medical equipment and supplies. Medicare also offers prescription drug coverage. Participants pay a monthly premium to help keep costs down for medication. Visit your local Social Security office for more coverage information.

Medicare Requirements

• This health insurance program is available to those age 65 and older, people under age 65 with certain disabilities and those of any age with kidney failure who require dialysis or a kidney transplant. The program is not based on income, and is available to anyone who meets the requirements. Those on Medicare can also receive Medicaid if they meet those requirements as well.

The DHEA Supplement Side Effects

• The nutritional supplement DHEA can cause a number of side effects. Gunay Mutlu/Photodisc/Getty Images

  The adrenal glands naturally produce the steroid hormone 5-Dehydroepiandrosterone, also known as DHEA. In humans, DHEA acts as a "master hormone" that the body can convert into other steroid hormones when needed, such as testosterone and estrogen. Natural production of DHEA begins to decline after age 20, and individuals taking DHEA seek the restorative benefits of this supplement, such as increased muscle mass and bone density and an improved overall state of mental health and energy.

Common Side Effects

• The Mayo Clinic reports that individuals taking DHEA have complained of side effects ranging from headache and fatigue to nasal congestion, insomnia and altered emotional states.

Sexual Changes

• DHEA can convert to testosterone, which produces both anabolic (tissue-building) as well as androgenic (masculinizing) effects. According to the "Prevention" website, patients taking DHEA in clinical trials have experienced masculine changes, such as increased acne, oily skin, excessive perspiration and the growth of facial hair. Increased testosterone can also cause women to suffer changes to their menstrual cycle, including stoppage of their periods. As excess testosterone can naturally convert to estrogen, taking DHEA can also cause breast tissue tenderness and gynecomastia, which is the development of male breasts.

Cancer Risks

• The "Prevention" website reports that DHEA that converts to testosterone can put users at risk for prostate cancer. "Prevention" also indicates that studies of women taking DHEA have shown that DHEA can put them at risk for ovarian cancer. Once taken, DHEA undergoes conversion to DHEA-sulfate, which the blood then transports throughout the body. "Prevention" reports that some studies have shown that higher blood levels of DHEA correlate to higher risks of breast cancer.

  Additionally, the Mayo Clinic warns that women taking the breast-cancer drug Tamoxifen as part of their treatment may want to avoid taking DHEA, as the supplement might increase cancer tissue resistance to Tamoxifen.

Contraindications

• While DHEA is sold as a supplement and not regulated by the Federal Food and Drug Administration, the website "RxList" suggests that individuals suffering from or prone to a number of conditions should not take DHEA. "RxList" advises women not to take DHEA during pregnancy or while breast-feeding. People predisposed to prostate cancer should also avoid taking DHEA, as excess testosterone can enlarge the prostate and exacerbate existing prostate cancer. Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) should not take DHEA. "RxList" also recommends that anyone with diabetes, liver disease, depression or other mood disorders should refrain from taking DHEA.

  The Mayo Clinic recommends that individuals should not take DHEA if a doctor has diagnosed them with clotting disorders or heart arrhythmias.

Safest Dental Fillings

• Dentists have safer filling alternatives for patients concerned about mercury toxicity. Jacqueline Veissid/Stockbyte/Getty Images

  According to the American Dental Association, amalgam fillings have been used in the dental industry for more than a century. Amalgam fillings are made of various elements, such as silver, tin, copper and mercury. Because of concern about mercury toxicity, advancements in dental technology now offer safer alternatives.

Composite Fillings

• Composite fillings are a type of resin that contain glass or quartz. They are free of mercury and other metals, which makes them a safer alternative. When combined, the white composite fillings look like part of the tooth. Composites offer effective durability and resistance to fracture, however, they are subject to discoloration or staining over time.

Glass Ionomers

• The American Dental Association identifies glass ionomers as another safe type of dental filling. Glass ionomers consist of materials created with a mixture of acids and fine-glass powders. Such fillings blend in naturally with the teeth. Ionomers are used for areas of the teeth that are not involved in a lot of chewing, because these fillings do not have a strong resistance to fracturing.

Resin Ionomers

• Resin ionomers are like glass ionomers, but the glass powder is mixed with an acrylic resin rather than an organic acid. Resin ionomers release flouride into the tooth, which is beneficial for patients that are at high risk for tooth decay. These types of fillings do not contain mercury and are fabricated to look like a tooth in color and texture.

Porcelain Fillings

• According to Mayoclinic.com, porcelain fillings (or ceramic fillings) are types of indirect restorative materials that are used to fill cavities.They also are beneficial for use as inlays, onlays, aesthetic veneers and crowns. The non-toxic porcelain fillings are desirable because of their natural appearance.

Propylparaben Dangers

• Propylparabens are commonly used to create personal care products. Jupiterimages/Photos.com/Getty Images

  Propylparabens are synthetic chemicals that are members of the paraben family. Propylparabens, along with three other kinds of parabens (butylparaben, methylparaben and ethylparaben) are common ingredients in many types of foods and cosmetics. The chemical functions as an antimicrobial, a preservative and a flavoring agent. Various dangers are often associated with use of propylparabens, although there is insufficient scientific evidence and research to back up the speculation.

Estrogen

• Propylparaben, along with the other parabens, is classified as being "estrogenic." This term means that propylparaben functions similarly to estrogen, which is the female sex hormone. As a result, propylparabens may risk tricking the body into thinking that is actually estrogen. Excessive accumulation of estrogen could lead to possible side effects such as weight gain and fluid retention. Another possibility is interruption of the hormone system in general, which could negatively impact fertility and pregnant women with developing male fetuses inside of the body.

Allergic Reactions

• Since propylparaben is used topically in beauty products, it is also often believed to lead to possible allergic skin reactions, particularly for individuals who have especially sensitive skin. Propylparaben has also been linked to dermatitis, which is a skin inflammation disorder that is characterized by rashes and reddened, itchy and swollen skin.

Common Products

• According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), some common products that contain propylparaben include shaving products, hair products (such as shampoo, conditioner and hairspray), moisturizers, lotions and makeup (such as foundation, powder, eyeliner and mascara). However, the majority of major antiperspirant and deodorant brands do not use propylparaben to manufacture their products. The FDA states that in 1984, the Cosmetic Ingredient Review deemed propylparaben safe for use in any personal care products at levels of a maximum of 25 percent. In general, propylparaben is used at levels that go from 0.01 up to 0.3 percent.

What is the Medicare Threshold?

Medicare is a social insurance program that offers medical coverage to elders and additional individuals who need the assistance of a government system. Recipients of the service meet certain demographic and financial requirements.

Age Threshold

• Seniors and disabled people qualify. elderly and infirm gardening 2. image by mdb from Fotolia.com

  Any U.S. resident 65 years or older is eligible for Medicare. Any disabled person under 65 years old also qualifies as long as she received Social Security benefits for two years prior to the date of Medicare enrollment.

Safety Net Threshold

• Out-of-pocket medical costs are too high for many people. financial calculations image by Albert Lozano from Fotolia.com

  Medicare Safety Net offers financial assistance for high out-of-hospital costs. The gap between the Medicare benefit and the government's schedule fee is calculated until a certain threshold is met, at which point benefits become fully covered for future services.

Income Tax Threshold

• Special policies are in place for Medicare beneficiaries. tax forms image by Chad McDermott from Fotolia.com

  Starting in 2013, employee wages and self-employment income above certain amounts will be taxed an additional 0.9 percent for Medicare. The amounts are $250,000 for joint recipients and surviving spouses, $125,000 for married individuals filing separately and $200,000 for all other people.

Signs of Rotten Teeth

• Signs of a rotting tooth should convince you to see a dentist. Stockbyte/Stockbyte/Getty Images

  A rotten tooth is caused by damage to the tooth structure that effects the enamel (hard coating that protects the outer layer of teeth) and continues to spread to layers in the teeth (dentine and pulp). This damage can continue to spread until there is nothing left of the inside of the tooth. Signs that tooth decay is running rampant in your mouth can be a warning to get your tooth taken care of before permanent damage is done.

Black Teeth

• Cavities are black, but just because you see a cavity doesn't mean your tooth is rotten. If you do not take care of the cavity then eventually the plaque and bacteria that caused the cavity, causes the rest of the tooth to become black, but this is mainly because at that point, the root of the tooth is dead -- there is no actual enamel, dentin and pulp to keep the tooth alive.

Bad Breath

• As with any type of decay, a mouth that has decaying teeth in it will smell bad. When you smell something really bad in your house you look for a dead mouse or other critter. Death smells when decaying. Essentially your mouth is decaying and dying which is why there is an odor associated with rotten teeth.

Change in Tooth Size

• As the enamel in your teeth erodes from the acid from bacteria in the plaque, you might notice your teeth changing in size. As the bacteria eats the dentin and pulp your teeth become thinner and subsequently smaller.

Teeth will Fall Out

• This is probably the very last thing you will notice if you have rotting teeth. Your teeth will begin to fall out. Remember when your teeth turned black it was because the root of the tooth was dying. A dying root can only hang on for so long to a dead tooth until it finally just breaks away.

What Is Nearsighted Vision?

Nearsightedness or myopia is a vision condition in which a person can see objects up close clearly, but distant objects appear blurry. Nearsighted vision most commonly occurs in school-age children and usually progresses until around 20 years of age.

Symptoms

• According to WebMD, the main symptom of myopia is blurred vision when looking at distant objects, such as a television set or a chalkboard. Other symptoms include squinting or frowning when looking far away, frequent headaches, excessive blinking, continual rubbing of the eyes and holding books or objects very close to the face.

Causes

• According to the American Optometric Association website, the exact cause of nearsightedness is unknown, but heredity and visual stress may be primarily responsible. Many people inherit nearsightedness and those who spend a lot of time at the computer, reading or doing close visual work are more likely to develop myopia.

Treatment

• Diagnosed during a routing eye exam, the most common treatments for nearsighted vision are eyeglasses or contact lenses. For severe cases of myopia, surgery is an option. The most common surgery to correct nearsightedness is LASIK surgery, which uses a laser to remove layers from the center of the cornea to flatten the dome shape that shifts the focus of the eye.

How to Remove Tea Stains on Teeth

Everyone wants to show off a beautiful smile, but if your teeth are yellow from tea stains you may be too embarrassed to smile. There are several methods to remove tea stains from your teeth. You can take care of the issue at home or seek the help of a dentist. Follow these guidelines and you will be ready to show off your pearly white teeth in no time.

• 1

  Brush your teeth more often. Most people brush their teeth twice a day, but if you are finding tea stains on your teeth you will want to increase the number of times you brush. Try brushing three to four times a day and see if you get improved results.

• 2

  Brush your teeth within an hour after drinking tea. If you drink tea at work, keep a toothbrush and a pack of toothpaste at your office.

• 3

  Change your toothpaste to a type that is specifically designed for whitening.

• 4

  Use whitening mouthwash daily. This alone is unlikely to remove the stains, but it is added protection for your teeth.

• 5

  Apply whitening strips to your teeth. You typically need to apply the strips to your teeth twice a day; however, directions vary depending on the brand you use. For more dramatic results, visit the dentist and get your teeth professionally bleached.

• 6

  Schedule a cleaning with your dentist. Your teeth should be cleaned by a dental hygienist once every six months. This will help your teeth maintain a healthy and clean appearance.

• 7

  Use veneers to hide your stains. Veneers are not a permanent solution, but should last for nearly a decade before needing to be replaced.

Topics on Human Growth and Development

• Human growth and development research falls into several categories. Kathy Quirk-Syvertsen/Digital Vision/Getty Images

  Within the subject of human growth and development, the words "growth" and "development" have very different meanings. Growth is a physical increase in size, mostly occurring in childhood. Development indicates an increasing level of adeptness in skills, which continues throughout life. The two processes, while independent of one another, are interrelated.

Cognitive Development

• Cognitive development refers to the development of information processing and includes problem solving, decision making and development of language. Cognitive development continues from early childhood through adulthood. Around 1950, Robert Havighurst developed an influential theory, which presented six stages of cognitive development: infancy and early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood and later maturity. Psychologist Jean Piaget looked at cognitive development a bit differently, splitting it into four developmental stages: sensorimotor from birth until age 2, pre-operational from ages 2 to 7, concrete operations from ages 7 to 11 and formal operations beyond the age of 11.

Psychosocial Development

• Psychosocial development has to do with development of the personality and of social skills and attitudes. This realm of development lasts from infancy through adulthood. Psychologist Erik Erikson analyzed these stages in his psychosocial development theory and maintained that psychosocial development occurs in eight stages throughout life. At each stage, the human confronts and masters various challenges. The stages represented in Erikson's theory are as follows: trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation and integrity versus despair.

Psychosexual Development

• Sigmund Freud first introduced his psychosexual development theory around the turn of the 20th century. This theory proposed that human beings have sexual appetites that are instinctual and present from birth. While the theory is controversial, it was the first theory to be considered in the modern age of psychotherapy. Freud's theory maintains that the development of libido takes place through a series of stages, with each stage represented by its own erogenous zone: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Freud maintained that anxiety experienced regarding any of these phases would persist as neurosis into adulthood.

Moral Development

• Lawrence Kohlberg adapted his theory of stages of moral development from Piaget's earlier work. This theory states that moral reasoning and resultant ethical behavior is learned in six distinct stages: punishment and obedience orientation, in which a child learns the outward consequences for "right" and "wrong" behavior; instrumental-relativist orientation, in which the concept of "right" is internalized; interpersonal concordance, in which authority is respected; law and order orientation, in which the individual feels a obligation to maintain social order; social contract orientation, in which a person learns it is wrong to violate the rights of others; and universal ethics orientation, in which the person comes to understand human rights and personal conscience.

Faith Development

• Professor James Fowler developed his stages of faith theory, which moves from infancy through adulthood in stages that begin with undifferentiated faith in earliest childhood and continue with stages including intuitive-projective, mythical-literal, synthetic-conventional, individuative, conjunctive, and finally the universalizing faith stage.