How to Plane Rough Wood

Bench-top planers are mechanized versions of hand-held planers that sit atop a work surface or woodworking table. They accomplish in a fraction of the time the process of whittling down the rough edges and uneven parts of wood needed for projects that range from large signs and furniture to models of animals and even carved pipes. These planers are a boon to anyone who does woodwork, whether for work or pleasure.

• 1

  Mark the finished depth you want the planed wood to be, using a pencil. If more than one side of the wood needs planing, mark each of the rough sides.

• 2

  Set the planer depth to 1/32 inch shorter than the depth of the side of the wood you want to plane. If the wood is 4 inches thick on the side that needs planing, set the planer to 3-31/32 inches.

• 3

  Find the direction of the wood grain in the piece you want to plane. The grain is the pattern of the fiber lines in the piece of wood.

• 4

  Put on safety goggles and set the wood down at the mouth of the bench planer. Position the wood so that the blades move along the direction of the wood grain.

• 5

  Turn the planer on and apply light pressure to the wood to make it pass through. Do not force the wood or it will cause marks in the surface of the wood.

• 6

  Stop the planer when the wood passes through it and inspect the wood. If it requires further planing, lower the blade by another 1/32 of an inch and pass the wood through again.

• 7

  Flip the wood between passes if you need to plane more than one side of the wood. Alternate between each side of the wood, planing no more than 1/32 at a time until the wood is smooth.

How to Frame an Athletic Jersey

Whether you have a jersey you wore during a triumphant sporting event, received a souvenir from a favorite player or just bought a jersey that a sports legend wore, you will want to display the jersey with all due dignity and respect. Framing it for standing on a mantel or bookcase or hanging in a prominent place on the wall will enable you to put the jersey just where you want it and you can do this yourself with no special skills or tools.

• 1

  Fold the jersey to display the number, name or colors you want to be visible. Once it is folded the way you like it, put it to one side. If you want to display it open, lay it out to see what is the best way of displaying it, whether arms out or down, front or back showing.

• 2

  Measure the jersey just as it will appear in the frame or shadow box. Be precise about this because if you buy a frame that is too small the jersey will not look good.

• 3

  Measure the width and height of your frame and cut the board according to the measurements with the knife.

• 4

  Place the double-sided tape in even strips along the back of the jersey or inside of the frame or shadow box.

• 5

  Press the jersey down onto the tape or onto the back of the board or shadow box. Straighten the jersey out just as you want it and place the glass over the jersey. Place it in an area with good light.

Wind Turbine Blade Specifications

• Blades must meet certain requirements to be most effective. Richard Kolker/Photodisc/Getty Images

  Sitting atop the large towers stretched across open land in wind farms, rotor blades for wind turbines represent the signature feature of this alternative energy source. In order to maximize the potential for energy production, certain specifications have evolved for wind turbine blades.

Number of Blades

• The standard specification calls for three blades. Based upon research that determines the optimal number of blades, manufacturers agree that for large-scale industrial wind turbines, three blades produce the greatest wind power, or energy. The purpose of the blades is to turn the shaft that generates electricity, so three blades produce more energy than one or two blades. Research shows that a turbine with more than three blades does not add to energy production, so the industry standard is three blades.

Rotor Diameter

• Think of a circle with the ends of the blade touching the outside of the circle as they rotate. Rotor diameter is the same as the diameter of the circle the blades create as they spin. Longer blades create larger circles and thus more energy. Enercon blades are 44 meters, or 144.3 feet. The GE 2.5 MW wind turbine with its 100-meter, or 328-foot, blades are much larger and more powerful.

Swept Area

• This specification is based upon rotor diameter: the area the blades sweep, or cover. The longer blades cover more area, which explains why longer blades generate more electricity. Enercon lists 1,521 square meters, or 16,345 square feet. For the GE 2.5 MW turbine, 7,854 square meters translates to 84,453 square feet.

Material

• According to the specifications for the Enercon E-44 wind turbine, the blades are made from fiberglass with a coating of epoxy resin with lightning protection built in. The epoxy hardens the material so the blades can withstand the stress of many years in the wind.

How to Square a Miter Saw

A miter saw uses a large circular blade secured to a cutter that lowers into the material by pulling down on a handle. The material sits against a fence and rests on a metal base. This allows you to maneuver the blade at just about any angle to the material so you can achieve angled cuts in the material. Because the blade moves to different angles, squaring the miter saw so you can make a true 90-degree angle cut in your material can be a little tricky.

Squaring the Blade to the Fence

• 1

  Unplug the miter saw from the electrical outlet.

• 2

  Loosen the miter saw angle lock on the base of the saw. The lock is usually a knob located on the lower base of the saw where you see the degree-of-angle guide. Turn the knob counterclockwise to loosen the lock.

• 3

  Rotate the blade on the miter saw until the indicator shows the saw at a 90-degree angle. The guide gets you close, but these guides are rarely 100 percent accurate.

• 4

  Place a metal square against the fence of the saw. The fence is the metal backplate against which you push the material when you cut it. A metal square offers a precision 90-degree angle.

• 5

  Hold the backside of the square against the fence while you slide the other side of the angle against the blade of the saw. Be sure that the square rests on the plate of the blade, and is not deflected by one of the blade's teeth. Both the fence and the blade must line up with the square with no gaps showing.

• 6

  Lock the saw blade in place by tightening the knob on the degree angle guide.

Squaring the Blade to the Base

• 1

  Pull down the saw blade until it bottoms out in the slot in the base of the saw. Secure the saw blade in place with the cutter head lock while you complete the rest of the steps.

• 2

  Place the longer side of the metal square on the left side of the saw's table and butt the other side of the square against the saw blade.

• 3

  Release the lock that secures the head-tilting mechanism that allows you to tilt the saw right to left. The location of the lock is different depending on your model of saw, but it's usually on the housing that encloses the blade.

• 4

  Adjust the vertical angle of the cutter head until you can see no gap between the saw blade and the edge of the metal square, and no gap between the square and the base of the saw.

• 5

  Lock the head-tilting mechanism.

Historical Blacksmithing Tools

• Blacksmiths often used anvils and hammers. Tino Tedaldi/Polka Dot/Getty Images

  The skills of a blacksmith proved crucial for the survival and development of early settlements, such as the Colonies in the New World, which depended on blacksmiths for crafting and repairing farm implements and household goods. These craftsmen provided supplies ranging from plow and axe blades made of tempered steel to horseshoes and the cast iron pots that hung on a hook in the fireplace. While blacksmithing supplies varied from one shop to another, some tools were owned by every smithy.

Forge, Bucket and Bellows

• A typical forge was a furnace or hearth made of stone or brick, to hold the fire used to work metals. When pumped, the bellows -- a device made of wood and leather -- blew air on the fire to make it burn hotter. A slack bucket of water, kept close by, cooled the hot metal.

Anvils and Vises

• The anvil and vice have to take a great deal of pounding. Anvils -- made from wrought iron and usually mounted on a block of wood or tree stump -- feature a horn at one end that's often used for making rings and a flat surface with rounded edges called a "face." Many anvils have a round hole known as a pritchel, and a hardy, or square hole, near the heel. The pritchel punches a hole in the metal without damaging the surface of the face, and the hardy holds anvil tools.

  Post vises, jawed devises that hold the metal piece, usually anchor to a table or a block set in concrete, and have a leg that helps distribute the impact from a hammer strike to the ground.

Hammers and Mallets

• Specialized hammers found in a blacksmith shop include rising and shaping or driving hammers, which have a rounded end used to pound metal into shape; cross-peen hammers for scribing; and a planishing hammer with a large, flat head for smoothing out the bumps. A blacksmith often used a wooden mallet or brass hammer to avoid marring the metal being worked.

Miscellaneous Tools

• Tools that rounded out an historical blacksmith shop include files, tongs for handling the hot metal and pliers for handling cold metal. Smiths also used screwdrivers, steel squares for measuring, gouges and saws. Steel punches that taper at one end for making holes and center punches ground to a point, along with shears and chisels used to cut metal, would be found in the shop as well. Mountvernon.org details the tools that George Washington ordered for his blacksmith shop in 1755, including tools for making large and small nails, a tool for forming the eyes of an ax and "cleve irons."

What Does Molybdenum React With?

Molybdenum is the 42nd element on the periodic chart and in its pure form it is a hard, white, malleable metal with a high melting point. Molybdenum does not occur in nature as a pure element, but forms several valuable ores, which are mined in various parts of the world, including the United States.

The Ores

• The most common ore occurs when molybdenum mixes with sulfur to form molybdenum disulfide. Wulfenite and powellite are the other two ores frequently found in nature. Wulfenite has the chemical formula of Pb[MoO4], which indicates a mineral combination of lead with a molybdate molecule. In this compound one atom of molybdenum combines with four oxygen atoms to make the molybdate. In powellite, the same molybdate molecule combines with calcium instead of lead.

Transition

• Molybdenum is one of the many transition metals on the periodic chart. This means the element has several oxidation states in which it can absorb electrons from other elements, such as oxygen, to create complex ions. Molybdenum does this frequently to create complicated molecular alignments, featuring numerous atoms of molybdenum.

Various Combinations

• Molybdenum in its pure form is used as an ingredient in lubricants, X-ray tubes, electronic tubes and electric furnaces. At other times, molybdenum minerals are converted to molybdic oxide (MoO3) and added to molten steel to increase strength and durability. In another scenario, molydenum is dissolved in ammonia hydroxide to form ammonium molybdate, (NH4)2Mo2O7. This ammonia salt can then be used in other chemical processes and as a paint pigment.

How to Charge 12V Batteries in Parallel

Batteries may be wired in parallel or in series. Two 12-volt batteries wired in parallel continue to produce 12 volts, but the capacity doubles. Two 12-volt batteries wired in series produce 24 volts, but the capacity remains the same as one for a 12-volt battery. Charging 12-volt batteries wired in parallel requires a 12-volt battery charger. The process is simple, but as the capacity of the batteries increases, depending on the number of batteries wired in parallel, it can take twice the time to charge two 12-volt batteries and three times as long for three batteries.

• 1

  Check that your battery charger is set for charging at 12 volts. Twelve-volt batteries wired in parallel must be charged at 12 volts. If your battery charger produces a charge rate greater than 12 volts it may damage your batteries.

• 2

  Connect the negative (black) wire from your battery charger to the negative terminal of one of the 12 volt batteries wired in parallel. The negative terminal is labeled "-." You can connect the wire to any of the negative battery terminals.

• 3

  Connect the positive (red) wire from your battery charger to the positive terminal of one of the 12-volt batteries. The terminal is labeled "+." The wire from the charger can be connected to any positive battery terminal.

• 4

  Plug in your charger to the electricity supply. Turn on your charger, ensuring it is set to charge at 12 volts. Let your batteries charge until the charger indicates they are fully charged. Some chargers have a light that illuminates once charged: others have a meter that shows the charge rate, and once it's near zero your batteries are charged.

• 5

  Turn off and unplug your charger from the electricity supply. Disconnect the negative and positive wires from the battery terminals.

How to Start a Gas Nitro RC Plane

In nitro-powered RC airplane engines, the engine itself is usually a rather simple two-stroke design. Like all other internal combustion engines, it requires three things to work: fuel, spark and air. Nitro methane is the fuel, a glow plug provides the spark and air is mixed in at the carburetor.

• 1

  Fill the fuel tank with fresh nitro methane fuel. The compounds that give the fuel its power are highly volatile and evaporate quickly. Improperly stored nitro may have deteriorated to the point it cannot power the engine.

• 2

  Prime the engine by placing your finger over the carburetor. Move the throttle to the full-open position and turn the prop a few times. You should see fuel fill the line from the tank to the engine.

• 3

  Attach the glow lighter to the glow plug. Make sure there is nothing in the way of the propeller. Move the throttle to idle position and then advance it two clicks with the throttle control on the transmitter.

• 4

  Use the cheater stick or the electric starter to turn the engine counterclockwise. The engine should try to run if all is working well. Leave the glow lighter attached until the engine is running smoothly.

• 5

  Remove the glow lighter from the glow plug. The engine can be fine-tuned at this point by adjusting the needle valve on the side of the engine.

LCD Backlight Types

• LCD backlighting allows the image to show through the screen. ULTRA.F/Photodisc/Getty Images

  Backlighting is the light that shines from behind your TV so you can see the image. LCD stands for liquid crystal display, and is made of a wafer-like panel which changes in response to an electrical current, creating the image. But LCD panels cannot create light all by themselves, so they need to depend on other sources to shine through. There are several light sources that LCD screens use for this purpose, although LED is the most common.

CCFL

• CCFL, or cold cathode fluorescent light, is a type of fluorescent light designed to produce just enough light to properly illuminate the LCD panel. You may not like the cold white light that these bulbs make for ambiance, but it is the right tone to accurately display images on televisions and monitors. They are energy efficient, but may not operate correctly in cold weather. Fluorescent bulbs work by energizing a gas and using its radiation to create light.

ELP

• ELP stands for electroluminescence panel, a type of backlighting that produces barely any heat compared to other options, which helps reduce energy costs. The panel is made with a phosphor coating that reacts to energy by glowing. Different panels come in different colors, but most LCD screens use white. These panels are effective but have shorter life spans than other options.

Edge LED

• LED stands for light-emitting diode, a type of semiconductor that produces light as a by-product of its electrical resistance. LEDs are flexible and have very long life spans while requiring very little space, making them ideal for LCD TVs. Edge-lit TVs use strips of LED lights along the sides of the screen to provide illumination.

Backlit LED

• Backlight LEDs are arranged in block-like shapes behind the LCD panel. They still function the same as edge-lit versions, but they are able to provide more direct illumination and so do a better job of contrasting light and shadow in the image.

Where Does the Oxygen That is Liberated in Photosynthesis Come From?

Photosynthesis is a process by which plants convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds. Sunlight plays a critical role, while oxygen is released as a byproduct. Photosynthesis makes plants very important to humans, because humans need oxygen to breathe and release carbon dioxide when exhaling. Without plants, the atmosphere's oxygen supply would quickly be diminished.

Sunlight and Photosynthesis

• The sun's rays are the first step in the process of photosynthesis. Sunlight hits the plant and parts of the plant's cells called chloroplasts absorb the light's energy. When water is introduced into the equation through rain or watering, the light energy is combined with the water. Then carbon dioxide interacts with it as well, causing a chemical reaction that creates simple sugars. The byproduct of this chemical process causes oxygen to be released.

Where Does the Oxygen Come From?

• Oxygen is created almost as an afterthought in the photosynthesis process. The chemical process that results from combining light energy, water, and carbon dioxide creates simple sugars, but the oxygen that is introduced into the equation by water is not really required. Thus, the oxygen is released back into the atmosphere as a waste byproduct of the process. Ultimately, the oxygen comes from water, which contains oxygen as an ingredient in its composition.

Human and Plant Interdependence

• Oxygen is a critical element in the air that humans breathe and is absolutely necessary to sustain life. Breathing releases carbon dioxide as a waste product much as photosynthesis releases oxygen. Plants and humans are therefore dependent on one another.

How to Get the Distance Between Two Locations

If the Earth were flat, you could find the distance between any two points using the Pythagorean theorem. It would just be the square root of (latitude1 - latitude2)^2 + (longitude1 - longitude2)^2. However, since the Earth is not flat, a more complex formula is needed. If the two points are close to each other, the above formula will be very close to correct, but if they are distant, it will not.

• 1

  Open Excel and enter the latitude of the first location in cell A1 and B1; enter degrees in A1 and minutes in B1. For example, New York City is at 40 degrees 47 minutes north, so enter 40 in A1 and 47 in B1.

• 2

  Enter the longitude of the first location in cells A2 and B2, as above. New York City is at 73 degrees 58 minutes west, so enter 73 in A2 and 58 in B2.

• 3

  Do similarly for the second location. For example, Honolulu is at 21 degrees 18 minutes north, 157 degrees 50 minutes west, so enter 21, 18, 157 and 50 in cells A3, B3, A4 and B4, respectively.

• 4

  Convert all locations to decimal degrees. In cell C1 enter = a1 + a2/360, then copy this to cells C2, C3 and C4.

• 5

  Convert all locations to radians. In cell D1 enter = c1/180*3.1415 and copy that to D3, D4 and D5.

• 6

  Calculate the distance. In cell C6 enter =ACOS(SIN(D1)*SIN(D2)+COS(D1)*COS(D2)*COS(D4-D3))*6371.

Wind Tunnel Types

• Wind tunnels are used in testing all types of vehicles, including bicycles. Andy Sacks/Photodisc/Getty Images

  Engineers use wind tunnels to test, measure and control air flow conditions on various types of vehicles. Designed for specific purposes, different types and classifications of wind tunnels exist. NASA classifies wind tunnels by tunnel geometry and speed regime, along with other criteria, according to their website.

Circuit Tunnels

• Types of circuit tunnels, whether open or closed, depend on how air flow is discharged from the test section of the wind tunnel. Open-circuit tunnels discharge air flow out of the test chamber into another area. Air forced through closed-circuit or closed-return tunnels is re-circulated, generally with a small vent or "breather" located somewhere along the circuit. The vent allows for the release of internal pressure created as the air heats. Using directional vanes, the air stream in a closed-circuit tunnel is generally turned four times by 90 degrees each time.

Suckdown Tunnels

• In a suckdown tunnel air flows from a top entry point down to exhaust louvers at the bottom, with the outdoors as the return path, thus the "suckdown" configuration. Although different sizes of open-circuit suckdown tunnels exist, the most common possess a test section measuring approximately four feet square. As of 2010, NASA's Ames Research Center's open-circuit suckdown tunnel at 80 feet by 120 feet is the world's largest, according to the Wind Tunnel Design website.

Blowdown Tunnels

• Blowdown wind tunnels deal with upstream and downstream air pressure, according to the NASA website. Located upstream is the high pressure vessel, with the low pressure downstream of the test section. Used primarily for supersonic testing, the blowdown tunnel is classified as a closed-circuit wind tunnel. Using a compressed-air reservoir, air is intermittently discharged, producing a supersonic or transonic flow. Although no longer in operation, the first pressure wind tunnel, NASA's Variable Density Tunnel, was located at the Langley Research Center.

Aviation Tools for Sheet Metal Fabrication

• The outer shell of an aircraft is made of sheet metal. Buena Vista Images/Photodisc/Getty Images

  The airframe or outer frame of an aircraft is made of sheet metal. It is the smooth exterior shell that provides a surface for air to glide over. The metal surface is held together primarily with rivets. Due to the curves and angles involved in the shape of an aircraft, special tools are needed to cut, form and assemble the sheet metal. Pliers, snips and drill bits specifically designed for sheet metal work are commonly used in aircraft building.

Pliers

• Pliers made for sheet metal work (also known as lineman's pliers) offer a mechanical advantage over standard pliers. They are built for bending and shaping metal, with a square nose and flat sides that are ideal for creating right angles. They are used for bending pieces of aircraft sheet metal too small for machinery to handle.

Aviation Snips

• Aviation snips are meant to cut cold-rolled and stainless steel sheet metal. They are spring-loaded to self-open. Most have offset blades that allow the user's hand to remain above the sheet metal while cutting. This keeps the hand away from the sharp edge of the freshly cut metal. Sheet metal comes in large sections or rolls and is cut and fit together in segments to create the shell of the aircraft.

Drill Unibit

• This is a conical drill bit with measurements along the shaft that determine the width of the hole being drilled. As the drill goes deeper into the metal, the larger measurement marks line up with the surface of the metal. This drill bit creates appropriately sized holes so that bolts can be inserted. The bolts will attach some portions of an aircraft's shell that cannot be screwed or riveted together.

How to Build a Little Car From Wood

Small wooden cars can be built using a variety of methods and tools. Boy Scouts make pinewood derby cars to race every year and their building methods are similar to many others that include choosing a piece of wood, carving a shape out of the wood, placing the wheel axles, putting on the wheels, staining and adding any decorations to the car. For racing purposes, weight should also be added to the car to make it run faster downhill.

• 1

  Choose a small piece of wood to create your body. Most model shops and some lumber yards carry modeling woods, which should be strong enough to support the body but soft enough to carve easily.

• 2

  Select a car shape and use your carving tools to create this shape out of your wood. Take your time and work slowly to avoid making any mistakes. Use another piece of wood if you do make a mistake.

• 3

  Use your tools to begin making more exact details in the wood. These details can include doors, trunks, hoods and specific cab shapes. Be as detailed as your artistic abilities allow, as a detailed car will look better than a non-detailed one.

• 4

  Use your paint brush to stain your car. This gives your wood a darker texture. Let it sit until it is dry.

• 5

  Use your drill to cut two small holes for your axles. These should be at the front and back of the vehicle. Slide the axle rod through the holes and place one wheel on each end of the axle.

• 6

  Paint any details you want on your car, such as a race number, doors or even your name. Let it sit until it is dry.

• 7

  Cut out small, narrow holes on the bottom of your car and glue in your pieces of metal. Only do this step if you are using your car in downhill racing. The weight will pull it down the hill faster.

What Is a Neutralizing Antibody?

Neutralizing antibodies are antibodies capable of stopping foreign agents from infecting host cells. Neutralizing antibodies may be produced through the process of vaccination.

Antibodies

• Antibodies are proteins found in the blood or lymph that have the potential to be used as an immune defense against antigens, or agents that are foreign to the body. That antibodies and antigens are related, and that antibodies are made of protein, were both discovered by Michael Heidelberger in the 1920s and 1930s.

Neutralization

• Neutralizing antibodies are antibodies that can successfully prevent an antigen, usually a virus, from infecting a potential host cell by inhibiting its effect on the cell. One way to do this is by blocking the receptors of either the cell or the virus.

Vaccinations

• Neutralizing antibodies may be produced to protect against disease by exposing a person to small amounts of the antigen, thereby causing his immune system to produce the desired antibodies. If the host is thereafter exposed to the antigen, the antibodies produced by the vaccination will prevent the antigen from infecting her.

How to Test Scrap Gold

Current gold prices shock those who lived before prices were variable. Gold was $35 an ounce in the United States through the 1950s and 1960s---up until 1971 when President Nixon ended fixed-price gold. With gold prices high, scrap gold has new meaning, and it can make you money---if you can identify it. Not much gold is pure or 24-karat gold. Common gold percentages are 10-karat, 14-karat and 18-karat. A 10-karat gold ring is 10/24 gold---not quite 50 percent gold content. You can test scrap gold for gold content in different ways.

Senses

• 1

  Use your senses for preliminary testing on scrap gold. Feel it. Gold feels very smooth, and it flows when heated, so it does not have sharp edges.

• 2

  Look at it. Check the color. The color is not a gaudy yellow like some imitation jewelry. Look for gold marks. Although this is not foolproof, items incised with a gold content mark are more likely gold.

• 3

  Check the scrap gold with a loupe or magnifying glass on the edges where wear is most likely. If the edge shows wear, your piece is probably plated gold or costume jewelry.

Acid Test

• 1

  Purchase an acid test kit. This kit for testing scrap gold comes with a stone and various bottles of acid that test for different karats of gold.

• 2

  Find a spot that is least visible for scraping. This test is invasive and does some damage to your jewelry or scrap gold. Rake the scrap gold across the stone to make a visible line.

• 3

  Drop a tiny amount of one of the acids on the line on the stone and watch for the result.

• 4

  Check to see if the acid dissolved the line, or if the line held without dissolution. If the acid dissolves the line, use the 10-karat acid to test again. If the 10-karat acid solution dissolves the metal line, the scrap is not gold or is less than 10-karat gold. Some old gold is 9 karat, but American standards no longer consider less than 10 karat as gold.

Electronic Test

• 1

  Purchase an electronic gold tester. This tool operates on batteries and uses a gel to make a seal for testing. If you intend to buy and sell much gold, it is faster and more accurate than the acid test kit, and worth the purchase.

• 2

  Connect the testing pen and clipboard to the electronic tester.

• 3

  Turn the pen top counterclockwise to place a small amount of the gel on the end of the pen.

• 4

  Place the edge of the scrap gold under the clip, and turn the tester on. Touch the pen to the gold and push the "test" button.

• 5

  Wait for the result. A number will show on the screen. The number translates to a karat amount as shown on the front of the gold tester, so you can determine if your item is 10-karat, 14-karat or 18-karat gold---or somewhere in between those fractional amounts.

How to Build Fog Machines

Building a fog machine is possible using several different methods. Some are fairly technical, requiring compressors and mineral oil, for example, but the simplest fog machine is one that virtually anyone can make at home with little more than a 5-gallon plastic bucket, some hot tap water and possibly a small fan.

• 1

  Fill a 5-gallon bucket approximately three quarters full of hot water. Hot tap water will do, but water heated on the stove will work even better.

• 2

  Break 5 lbs. of dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide) into fist-sized chunks if it isn't already in small chunks. You can break dry ice by covering it with a cloth and hitting it with a hammer. Wear gloves and protective clothing whenever handling dry ice--do not let dry ice touch exposed skin.

• 3

  Drop the broken dry ice chunks into the hot water in the 5-gallon bucket. Within seconds large amounts of fog should be pouring over the sides of the bucket and spreading out in all directions, hugging the floor just like real fog.

• 4

  Blow air on the fog with a small fan to make it go in the direction you wish if that is necessary. Otherwise the fog should spread in a fairly even circle around the bucket.

• 5

  Remove the water from the bucket after five minutes and repeat the process to continue making fog.

Nearest Solar Systems

• The Alpha Centauri system is the nearest solar system to earth. Stocktrek/Brand X Pictures/Getty Images

  The notion of interstellar travel has fascinated virtually every member of the human race, from inquisitive children to learned astronomers. As of 2010, we do not have the ability to visit any of the nearest star systems, but they are likely to be the first star systems humanity will visit beyond our own.

Alpha Centauri System

• Alpha Centauri, our nearest solar system, is only visible in the southern sky, which makes it impossible to view from locations farther north than Florida. One of the key differences between Alpha Centauri and our own solar system is that the Alpha Centauri system comprises three stars. Its first star, Alpha Centauri A, is similar to our own star Sol, while Alpha Centauri B burns with a more orange hue than our sun. The third star in the system is a small red dwarf called Alpha Centauri C. Scientists from the European Space Agency theorize that earth-like planets may orbit Alpha Centauri A, though the theory lacks hard evidence as of 2010. The Alpha Centauri system is the most likely destination for humanity's first interstellar voyage. However, spaceflight technology does not yet allow humans to undertake this 4.37-light-year journey in a single lifetime.

Barnard's Star

• The second-closest solar system to earth is Barnard's Star, discovered by Edward Emerson Barnard in 1916. NASA has identified this system, which is 6 light years away, as a primary target for its space interferometry mission, which will gather data on earth-sized orbital bodies around the star. Some of these bodies exist in the habitable zone for earth-like planetary environments, making them an interesting subject for further investigation. Only 17 percent the size of Sol, Barnard's Star is a red dwarf star, and produces significantly lower amounts of energy than our sun. Barnard's Star also comprises a far greater percentage of heavy elements than Sol, due to its later stage in the stellar life cycle.

Wolf 359

• At a distance of approximately 7.8 light years, Wolf 359 is the third-closest solar system to Earth. The star takes its name from astronomer Maximilian Franz Joseph Cornelius Wolf, who was a pioneer in the field of astrophotography. The faint star is not visible to the naked eye, which is why it remained unknown until Wolf's discovery. Wolf 359 is a faintly burning red dwarf, the dimmest within a 10-light-year radius of our own sun. Daytime for an earth-like planet orbiting Wolf 359 would be roughly ten times brighter than full moonlight on earth. Wolf 359 is a flare star, meaning that it displays periods of increased brightness at seemingly random intervals. Attempts by the Hubble Space Telescope to locate orbiting bodies around Wolf 359 have failed to show any planet-like objects. Furthermore, researchers believe that life is unlikely to develop in the region, due to the fact that Wolf 359's light is too far in the red spectrum to sustain photosynthesis.

How to Identify Antique Keys

Antique keys are found in antique stores, thrift shops and at garage sales. Some people use antique locks within a home, and have the original key or set of keys that go with an antique lock. Identifying these types of keys is generally easy. Aside from the shape, the key itself may appear dull or aged in color, or more ornate and heavy than modern keys. They may also have no markings, or very distinct marks not used today in modern times, such as symbols or unique hallmarks.

• 1

  Look at the barrel key shape. Barrel keys have a rounded edge and a short shaft. Look at the shaft, or the insertable part of the key. Barrel keys have a hollow shaft, which is obvious when staring into the key on an angle. Feel the key for weight. See if it feels light, or slightly heavy when in the center of your palm. Barrel keys are lighter than the solid metal of a skeleton key.

• 2

  Check out the end of a skeleton key. Look for the similar rounded end, the same kind of shape as a barrel key, but see if the shaft of the key is long. Look at the intricacy and the workmanship on the key. Skeleton keys were often highly decorated, with two short grooved teeth or bits at the end part of the key that is inserted into a lock. Make sure the key has a solid shaft, not a hollow shaft like on a barrel key.

• 3

  Examine the bow of a skeleton key. The bow is the part of the key that is turned by hand, and it should be decorative in design. Feel the key for weight using the palm of the hand method. A skeleton key will feel a bit heavier than a barrel key. Try different types of locks with a skeleton key. A skeleton key can usually open most antique locks and is known for this function.

• 4

  Check to see if an antique key is flat. A flat key will not have a rounded edge, and will be completely flat with a long shaft and a number of bits along the shaft part of the key. A flat key may also have a thicker bow than barrel or skeleton keys, with a smaller center in the middle. A thicker bow is needed to keep the key from breaking on a proper angle while turning, since the shaft is not thick and rounded for support.

• 5

  Look online at antique key collector websites, or in books at the library with pictures of antique keys, to help you identify antique keys. Always use a magnifying glass when examining antique keys with small markings, especially if the marks are hard to see due to patina on the key.

The Uses for a 12-Volt Strobe Light

• When young people think of a strobe light, many will instantly think of the lights being used at a party. But the strobe light was actually invented for many industrial purposes and subsequently became associated with the nightclub scene. Strobe lights, especially at lower flashing frequencies, can be used by scientists, mechanics and entertainers.

Science

• Due to its affect of making everything seem to move in slow motion, strobe lights have been used by many scientists over the past century to study moving objects.

  One of the most famous of these studies was in 1931 when Harold Edgerton used flashing lamps and high-speed photography to capture the movement of bullets in flight.

  Others have used strobe lights to study the movement of vocal cords.

Mechanic Work

• By aiming a strobe light at the fly-wheel of a car, a mechanic is able to optimize the efficiency of a car engine by observing in "slow motion" the rotational period. This practice is not widely used anymore, as car engine efficiency can be more accurately judged through the various computers fitted to the vehicle. Other industries, too, have used strobe lights to assess the efficiency of rotating objects.

Emergency Services

• On many emergency vehicles, the old-fashioned rotating light bulb has been replaced by a low-frequency strobe light. This is because the short flash time means the light intensity is increased, making the light more noticeable. Divers, mountaineers and ships also use strobe lights as a distress beacon.

Entertainment

• In practically all forms of entertainment, from music videos, to theater and to photography, strobe lights are used, but for very different purposes. Movie and theater directors use strobe lights as special effects to enhance certain scenes. In the theater especially, strobe lights have proved very effective at injecting movement and drama into scenes that would otherwise seem flat. Photographers use strobe lights in conjunction with the camera, due to the strobe light's effect of making everything appear still. During live music performances, music videos and in nightclubs, strobe lights are used purely for their entertainment value. This practice originated in nightclubs the 1960s as a way of enhancing the lively mood of club patrons.

Dangers

• If you are planning on using a strobe light for any purpose it is important to remember that they can induce epileptic fits.